What Is MHRA Style?
MHRA (Modern Humanities Research Association) style is the citation standard published by the MHRA, now in its 3rd edition. It is used in UK humanities departments — particularly for history, literature, philosophy, history of science, and interdisciplinary studies where a footnote-based citation system is expected.
STEM students most commonly encounter MHRA in:
- History and philosophy of science — examining how scientific knowledge developed
- Science communication and writing courses
- Bioethics and philosophy of medicine modules
- Technology and culture — interdisciplinary modules combining STEM and humanities
- Literature and science electives
Like OSCOLA and Chicago NB, MHRA uses footnotes for in-text references rather than parenthetical author-date citations. Every time you cite a source, a superscript number appears in the text pointing to a footnote at the bottom of the page. A complete bibliography appears at the end of the paper.
MHRA vs Chicago NB — What Is the Difference?
| Feature | MHRA 3rd Ed. | Chicago NB (17th Ed.) |
|---|
| Author name in footnotes | First Last (normal order) | First Last (normal order) |
| Author in bibliography | Last, First (inverted) | Last, First (inverted) |
| Publisher location | Required | Required |
| Page numbers in footnotes | p. / pp. used | No "p." prefix |
| Shortened subsequent citation | Author, Short Title, page | Author, Short Title, page |
| Ibid. | Used (with full stop) | Used (with full stop) |
| Article titles | 'Single quoted' | 'Single quoted' |
| Book titles | Italicised | Italicised |
| Primary use | UK humanities | US and international humanities |
Core MHRA Rules
- In-text citations are superscript footnote numbers — no parenthetical author-date
- Footnote entries end with a full stop
- Author names in footnotes: First Last (normal order)
- Author names in bibliography: Last, First (inverted, for alphabetical sorting)
- Article and chapter titles in single quotation marks
- Book and journal names are italicised
- Page numbers use p. (single page) and pp. (range) in footnotes
- Subsequent references: use the author's surname + a shortened title: Smith, Deep Learning, p. 45
Books
Single author
Footnote — first citation
¹ Steven Shapin, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), p. 45.
Shortened subsequent footnote
⁵ Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 50.
Bibliography entry
Shapin, Steven, The Scientific Revolution (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996)
Multiple authors
Footnote
² Ian Goodfellow, Yoshua Bengio and Aaron Courville, Deep Learning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016), pp. 145–48.
Bibliography
Goodfellow, Ian, Yoshua Bengio and Aaron Courville, Deep Learning (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2016)
Edited volume
Footnote
³ Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, ed. by Ian Hacking, 4th edn (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), p. 10.
Chapter in an edited book
Footnote
⁴ Sandra Harding, 'Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology', in Feminist Epistemologies, ed. by Linda Alcoff and Elizabeth Potter (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 49–82 (p. 55).
Bibliography
Harding, Sandra, 'Rethinking Standpoint Epistemology', in Feminist Epistemologies, ed. by Linda Alcoff and Elizabeth Potter (New York: Routledge, 1993), pp. 49–82
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Journal Articles
Format (footnote)
Author, 'Article Title', Journal Name, Volume (Year), page range (specific page)
Examples
⁵ Lorraine Daston and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, 40 (1992), 81–128 (p. 95).
⁶ Jun K. Chen and Raj M. Patel, 'Machine Learning in Climate Modelling', Nature Climate Change, 12 (2022), 710–18 (p. 712). DOI: <https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-022-01490-3>
Bibliography
Daston, Lorraine and Peter Galison, 'The Image of Objectivity', Representations, 40 (1992), 81–128
Websites and Online Sources
Format
Author/Organisation, 'Title', Website Name, Day Month Year <URL> [accessed Day Month Year]
Examples
⁷ NASA, 'James Webb Space Telescope', NASA Science, 12 September 2023 <https://science.nasa.gov/mission/webb/> [accessed 10 January 2024].
⁸ Royal Society, 'Science as a Public Enterprise', royalsociety.org <https://royalsociety.org/topics-policy/projects/science-public-enterprise/> [accessed 15 February 2024].
Theses and Dissertations
Footnote
⁹ Sofia Almeida, 'Machine Learning in Urban Traffic Systems' (unpublished doctoral thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2022), p. 34.
Bibliography
Almeida, Sofia, 'Machine Learning in Urban Traffic Systems' (unpublished doctoral thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2022)
Films and Documentaries
Footnote
¹⁰ AlphaGo, dir. by Greg Kohs (Reel As Dirt, 2017), 00:45:10.
Bibliography
AlphaGo, dir. by Greg Kohs (Reel As Dirt, 2017)
Using Ibid. and Shortened Citations
| Situation | Format | Example |
|---|
| Same source, same page (consecutive) | Ibid. | Ibid. |
| Same source, different page (consecutive) | Ibid., p. # | Ibid., p. 78. |
| Same source, cited again later | Author, Short Title, p. # | Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 60. |
MHRA "ibid." vs OSCOLA "ibid": MHRA uses "Ibid." with a capital I and a full stop (since it starts a sentence in a footnote). OSCOLA uses "ibid" with no capital and no full stop. Don't mix the two conventions in the same paper.
Common MHRA Mistakes
- Using author-date in-text (Harvard style): MHRA is footnote-only — there are no (Author Year) citations in the body text
- Inverted author names in footnotes: footnotes use First Last; bibliography entries use Last, First — not the other way around
- Forgetting p./pp. in footnotes: MHRA uses "p. 45" and "pp. 45–50" (Chicago omits the p. prefix)
- Missing full stop at footnote end: MHRA footnotes end with a full stop (unlike OSCOLA which omits the full stop)
- Forgetting publisher location: always include the city — (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press) not just (MIT Press)
- Quotes around book titles: books are italicised; only article and chapter titles use single quotation marks
- Double-spacing footnotes: footnotes are single-spaced; the body text is double-spaced
Frequently Asked Questions
Do I need both footnotes and a bibliography?
Yes — footnotes alone are not enough. The bibliography provides a complete, alphabetically ordered list of all sources used in the paper. Every source cited in a footnote must appear in the bibliography (with the exception of personal communications and some ephemeral sources, which need only a footnote).
When do I write "Ibid." vs a shortened citation?
"Ibid." applies only when citing the same source in two immediately consecutive footnotes. If any other source appears in between, use the shortened form: Author, Short Title, p. page. Using ibid. when it is not consecutive is a common error that can confuse readers and examiners.
How do I handle multiple works by the same author?
In the bibliography, list all works by the same author alphabetically by title. In the shortened footnote citation, always include the short title to distinguish between them: Shapin, Scientific Revolution, p. 45 vs Shapin, Social History of Truth, p. 30.
Does MHRA work for science papers?
MHRA is a humanities citation style and is rarely used for primary STEM research. However, it is appropriate for history of science, philosophy of science, science and technology studies (STS), and any humanities module you take as part of a STEM programme. For your core science papers, use IEEE, APA, or Vancouver depending on the discipline.
Should I use MHRA or Chicago for my history of science paper?
Both are footnote-based and nearly identical in citation format. In UK universities, MHRA is usually the specified style for humanities departments. In US universities, Chicago is the default. Always check the specific requirements of your department or publication. If your institution does not specify, either is academically acceptable — just be consistent.