MHRA referencing uses numbered footnotes for citations and a bibliography at the end. STEM students usually meet it in history of science, science communication or philosophy of science modules.
This page shows the footnote format for common sources, how to shorten later notes, how to cite archives and websites, and how to build the bibliography. Examples follow the widely used third edition of the MHRA Style Guide; check whether your department specifies a newer edition.
How MHRA Referencing Works in Brief
Put a superscript number in the text, normally after the punctuation at the end of the clause or sentence. Give the full citation in the matching footnote the first time you cite a source, then a shortened form after that.
List every source in a bibliography, alphabetically by the first author's surname, with that author's name inverted.
Footnote Citations
The first note for a source gives full details. Names appear in normal order, and the specific page cited comes at the end.
| Element | MHRA convention |
|---|---|
| Note number in the text | Superscript, after the punctuation mark |
| Author names in notes | First name then surname |
| Book titles and journal names | Italic |
| Article and chapter titles | In single quotation marks |
| Publication details for books | In parentheses: (Place: Publisher, Year) |
| Page numbers | p. for one page, pp. for a range |
Books and Articles
Book, first footnote
1. Thomas S. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 52.
Older book
2. Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (London: John Murray, 1859), p. 490.
Journal article, citing one page
3. Steven Shapin, 'The Invisible Technician', American Scientist, 77 (1989), 554–63 (p. 556).
For a journal article, the volume number follows the journal title, the year goes in parentheses, and the full page range appears without "pp.". The specific page you cite goes in parentheses at the end.
MHRA shortens page ranges by keeping only the changing digits, as in 554–63, but writes numbers from 10 to 19 in full in each hundred, such as 112–16.
Chapter in an Edited Book
Give the chapter author, the chapter title in single quotation marks, then "in", the book title in italics, "ed. by" and the editors, the publication details, the chapter's page range, and the cited page in parentheses.
Shortened Notes and Ibid.
After the first full note, use a short form: the author's surname, a short title and the page.
4. Kuhn, Structure, p. 77.
5. Shapin, 'Invisible Technician', p. 557.
MHRA permits "ibid." for a note that repeats the source of the note immediately before it, but many tutors prefer the short form throughout because it stays clear if notes are moved. Avoid "op. cit." and "loc. cit.", which MHRA discourages.
Historical and Archival Sources
History of science work often uses letters, notebooks and manuscripts. MHRA cites these by location first, so a reader can find the original.
Pattern for a manuscript
Place, Repository, collection and shelfmark, description of the item, date, folio number.
- Give the city, the archive or library, and the full shelfmark or reference number exactly as the repository records it.
- Describe the item, for example a letter with sender, recipient and date.
- Use "fol." or "fols" for folios, with "r" and "v" for recto and verso where needed.
- In the bibliography, list manuscript sources in a separate section before printed sources.
Digitized and Online Sources
For web pages, give the author if known, the page title, the site name, the URL in angle brackets and the date you accessed it in square brackets.
6. 'Title of the Page', Name of Website <https://www.example.org/page> [accessed 3 October 2026].
For a digitized book or journal, cite the original publication as normal. Add the database or URL only if your tutor asks for it or the digitized copy differs from the print original.
The Bibliography
The bibliography lists every source alphabetically. Only the first author's name is inverted, and journal entries give the full page range without a specific page.
Darwin, Charles, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (London: John Murray, 1859)
Kuhn, Thomas S., The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962)
Shapin, Steven, 'The Invisible Technician', American Scientist, 77 (1989), 554–63
MHRA Compared with Chicago Notes
| Feature | MHRA | Chicago notes and bibliography |
|---|---|---|
| Quotation marks | Single | Double |
| Page abbreviation in notes | p. and pp. | Usually no abbreviation |
| Journal volume and year in notes | 77 (1989) | 77, no. 6 (1989) |
| Website access date | [accessed date] in square brackets | Only if no publication date is available |
Tips for STEM Students Using MHRA
- Do not mix in numbered IEEE or Vancouver habits; MHRA notes are full sentences of reference detail, not bare numbers.
- Use single quotation marks for short quotations and display quotations of more than about 40 words as an indented block without quotation marks.
- Keep a running source list with every detail as you research, so first notes are complete.
- Check every footnote number against its note after editing, since moved paragraphs scramble the order.
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Frequently Asked Questions
Mainly in history of science, philosophy of science and science communication modules taught alongside humanities departments.
Both use footnotes and a bibliography. MHRA uses single quotation marks, p. and pp. for pages, and a different order for journal details.
Use the author's surname, a short title and the page, for example Kuhn, Structure, p. 77.
Start with the place and repository, then the collection and shelfmark, a description of the item and its date, and the folio.
Yes, in most cases. The bibliography lists all sources alphabetically, with the first author's name inverted.
Normally after the punctuation at the end of the relevant clause or sentence, as a superscript number.
It is permitted for an immediately repeated source, but a short-form note is often preferred. Follow your tutor's preference.